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In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming customs, the patronymic is Mikhailovich and the family name is Skossyreff.
Boris Skossyreff
"Borís I d'Andorra"
Boris in 1934
King of Andorra
Reign10 July 1934 – 23 July 1934
BornBorís Mikhàilovitx Skóssirev-Mavrusov
(1896-06-12)12 June 1896
Vilna, Lithuania-Vilnius Governorate, Russian Empire (now Vilnius, Lithuania)
Died27 February 1989(1989-02-27) (aged 92)[citation needed]
Boppard, Rhineland-Palatinate, West Germany (now Germany) (possibly)
SpouseMarie Louise Parat de Gassier (m. 21 March 1931)
Names
Boris Mikhailovich Skossyreff
FatherMicheal Skossyreff
MotherElisabeth Mawrusow
Coat of arms of Boris I as self-declared King of Andorra

Boris Mikhailovich Skossyreff (Russian: Бори́с Миха́йлович Ско́сырев, romanized: Boris Mikhailovich Skosyrev; Catalan: Borís Mikhàilovitx Skóssirev pronounced [boˌɾis .mikˌaj.lo.vit͡ʃ ˈsko.si.ɾef]; 12 June 1896 – 27 February 1989) was a Belarusian adventurer, international swindler and pretender who attempted to seize the monarchy of the Principality of Andorra during the early 1930s, styling himself King Boris I of Andorra.

Skossyreff was born in Lithuania to a family of lower nobility from Belarus. Following the outbreak of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Skossyreff was able to seek political asylum in England, where he enlisted in the British army for the end of World War I. This was followed by his work in the British Foreign Office. He moved to the Netherlands in the mid-1920s, where he was in a list of Prominent Foreign Revolutionaries in 1924, prepared by the General Intelligence and Security Service, in which he was noted as an international swindler. Despite this, Skossyreff falsely claimed to have been working in the Royal household of the Netherlands.

Through his visits to Andorra, a co-Principality in the Pyrenees co-princed by the Bishop of Urgell and President of France, in the early 1930s, Skossyreff worked on gaining power. During extensive conversations with local politicians in May 1934, Skossyreff presented the Government of Andorra a document in which he justified his intentions of rule.

Through falsely portraying himself as a member of the European aristocracy, Skossyreff proposed freedoms, modernisation, foreign investments and the recognition of a tax haven to Andorra through his self-published constitution.

Early life

[edit]

Skossyreff was born on 12 June 1896, in Vilnius, Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire.[1] He later acquired a Dutch passport which elaborated that his supposed title was Monsieur le Baron Boris de Skossyreff - a possible title, but likely to be false, due to the rarity of Barons in Russia.[2] He was likely from a family of lower nobility, corresponding to his serving as an Officer in World War I.[3][4]

Skossyreff's educational background is quite ambiguous. In press interviews, he spoke about a childhood friendship with Edward VIII.[3] He also stated that he attended the prestigious Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, followed by Magdalen College, Oxford.[5] While these claims allowed Skossyreff to build up his persona, both the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and Magdalen College confirm that he was not a student.[3]

Political asylum

[edit]

Prior to his arrival in Andorra, little is known about Skossyreff. When the Russian Revolution of 1917 broke out, he was able to seek political asylum in England, where he enlisted for around two years in the British Army for the end of World War I.[6] He told The Times that he had served in the Royal Naval Air Service's Armoured Car Service, under Oliver Locker-Lampson, which was sent to Russia to fight against the Germans.[7]

Following World War I, Skossyreff was mentioned in multiple newspapers for cheque fraud and swindling of a gold watch.[8][9][10][11]

He was alleged to have served in the British Foreign Office, and partaken in several classified missions which took him to Siberia, Japan and the United States.[12] He was noted by his superiors in his post-action report for his gift for languages, which gave him an ability to connect with foreigners.[13]

Supposed Dutch nobility

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Skossyreff's Dutch Passport

Skossyreff's Foreign Office documents show that he left the service in 1925 and moved to the Netherlands, where he later claimed to have worked in the Dutch Royal Household, and to have been rewarded by Wilhelmina of the Netherlands with the title of "Count of Orange" – a title normally reserved for members of the Royal Family.[14][15] The Archives of the Dutch Government establish that Skossyreff did not serve the Royal Household, nor was rewarded with a title, instead being found in a list of Prominent Foreign Revolutionaries in 1924, prepared by the General Intelligence and Security Service, in which he was listed as an "international swindler".[16][17]

Other enterprises

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In 1932, Skossyreff registered "Boris de Skossyreff: import - export, representation" in Santa Marta, Colombia. During this period, he was said to have learned Spanish, which he later utilised in Andorra.[18][19]

First stay in Andorra

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On his first visit to Andorra, Skossyreff took up residence in the village of Santa Coloma d'Andorra, near Sant Julià de Lòria.[20] During this visit, he was believed to have begun planning his "coup", having had extensive conversations with peasants, artisans and politicians across Andorra.[21]

On the 17 May 1934, Skossyreff presented the former court prosecutor and other advisers to the Council of the Valleys (former name of the Government of Andorra) a document laden with his suggestions, in which he justified his intentions of rule.[22] His attempt was ridiculed by Council members, who were quoted as responding: "he should not meddle in political affairs in the Valleys [of Andorra]; and that, in the event of a repeat offence, this [Council] reserves the right to raise complaints to the competent Authority so that it applies the sanctions that will be deserved. recurrent".[23]

Exile

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Skossyreff wearing a monocle

Skossyreff saw himself as "exiled" and settled in La Seu d'Urgell (just 5 km; 3 miles from Andorra) in the Hotel Mundial,[24][25] where he began behaving like an authentic monarch; one which led to many interviews, some of them telephone calls, including those given to the newspapers The Times and The Daily Herald.[26]

Through his attempts to gain power, Skossyreff came into contact with several Legitimist royalist groups in the south of France. In Perpignan, he managed to have his plans reach the representative of Prince Jean d'Orleáns, Duke of Guise, and pretender to the throne of France.[27] His argument was based on the fact that the French heads of state continued to have the rights and functions of co-princes from Andorra, and as the Duke claimed to be the "rightful" King of France, he had rights over Andorra.[28]

During his "exile", Skossyreff granted visits, made official receptions and organised numerous events, such as a mass for the late Catalan president Francesc Macià.[5] He was seen walking around often with monocle and a baton, adopting the character and mannerisms of a monarch, despite his apparent lack of authority.[29][30]

Skossyreff released an innovative constitution for Andorra that would have substantially modified the traditional Andorran political system. The Co-principality would have freedoms, modernisation, foreign investments and the recognition of a tax haven; one which was argued would bring Andorra into the modern age.[31][32] Skossyreff printed ten thousand copies of his Constitution, addressed to Spanish and French celebrities. One of them, which ended up in the hands of the Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell, Justí Guitart i Vilardebó, caused uproar among his close circle, where he reaffirmed that the only co-princes of Andorra were the Bishop himself and the President of the French Republic.[33]

Andorran proposition

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Skossyreff proposed to make Andorra one of the most important business centers in the world, where banks, financial entities and international companies would not waste time installing their social domicile there, taking advantage of the tax regime. He asked for a reward in return for his gift to the Andorran people - for the General Council to proclaim him Prince of Andorra. According to later legends, Boris's proposal was almost entirely supported by the Chamber; with only one adviser against the remaining twenty-three who formed the council, the monarchy was instituted.[34] Boris was accompanied by his young partner, the American millionaire Florence Marmon, who was the former wife of Howard Carpenter Marmon.[35][36]

"We have conquered the country in the name of the King of France (the Duc de Guise) as his Lord Lieutenant, but not at his delegated representatives [...] When we have taken possession of the country I will offer it to the Duke. My army is composed of 500 volunteers [...]. They have pledged themselves to free Andorra from French control and hand it to us.

— "Boris I" speaking to The Times.

Detention

[edit]

The pretended reign of "King Boris I" was only to last for a few days.[37] Boris declared war on the Bishop of Urgell, who asked the Spanish authorities to act.[38] The Spanish Civil Guard sent three constables and a sergeant to La Seu d'Urgell to apprehend Boris.[39] The next day he was transferred to Barcelona, where he was placed before a judge.[40][41]

Skossyreff in 1936

On the 23 July 1934, he was transferred to Madrid by train, accompanied by two agents.[42][43] His arrival in the Spanish capital coincided with Spanish journalists, who tried to interview him.[44][45] He was sent to the Modelo prison in Madrid, while acting as a monarch in exile.[46][47] Historian Arnau González explained that during his stay at Modelo de Madrid, Boris and his collaborators continued to interpret the papers they had signed. Thus, they received several telegrams in their name, in which they guaranteed that "all documents were safe" and that they would receive a postal order of 200 pesetas. There was never an explanation on which documents or what happened to the money.[48][49]

Spanish authorities noted that Skossyreff carried a Dutch passport, but declared himself to be a Russian white émigré. However, this background is somewhat contradicted by a report in the publication Spain Week by Week, which claimed on 25 July 1934, that Skossyreff was a Jew who resided for some years in Catalonia and Majorca.[50] That account also contended that Skossyreff had made his proclamation on 11 July and that he had declared himself "Boris I, Prince of the Valleys of Andorra, Count of Orange and Baron of Skossyreff… Sovereign of Andorra and Defender of the Faith."

Visit to Olhão

[edit]

In Olhão, Portugal, Skossyreff met Francisco Fernandes Lopes who wrote an article in 1935 about the "King of Andorra".[51][52] It was at this stage that Skossyreff finally obtained a passport and left Olhão for Genoa, where he was denied disembarkation, only to proceed to Marseille where he finally disembarked to be reunited with his French wife.[53][54]

In France, the police seized his passport on 7 January 1936. Skossyreff was later said to have called Francisco Fernandes Lopes in distress with a plea to contact the then Portuguese dictator - Oliveira Salazar - to have him diplomatically intercede for him; one which seems to have occurred.[55] After 3 months in prison in Aix-en-Provence, the French authorities allowed him to return to Portugal, where he was again arrested for not having a residence permit.[56][57]

Imprisonment and later life

[edit]

In June 1936, he returned to Spain, coinciding with the start of the Spanish Civil War. He went on to France in 1936, where he was arrested again in Saint-Cannat.[58][59] In 1938, the French authorities allowed him to return to Aix-en-Provence.[60]

Imprisonment

[edit]

In February 1939, Skossyreff was in a French prison camp with Spanish anti-Francoists, alongside Italian and Central European anti-fascists from the regions occupied by the Third Reich before World War II.[61]

In October 1942, he was released by the occupying Germans. With the victory of the allies, Skossyreff was first arrested by the Americans, and after a brief period of freedom he was again arrested on 4 December 1946, by the French who occupied Berlin.[62] He remained in the Coblence-Metternich prison until 17 December, and was harshly treated by the gendarmes because of his collaboration with the Nazis.[58]

He took up residence in Boppard (West Germany); however, he went to an area controlled by the Soviets, leading to his arrest and sentencing to 25 years of forced labor in a Siberian camp. He was released in 1956, returned to Boppard and died there in 1989.

Legacy

[edit]

A novel, titled Boris I, Rei d'Andorra (Boris I, King of Andorra) was written in 1984 by Catalan author Antoni Morell i Mora.[63] The author dedicated the book to his grandmother, who he claimed had personally met Skossyreff. It was later adapted for the stage by Beth Escuda.[64]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ P L Kessler. "Boris Skossyreff". www.historyfiles.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2020-08-03. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  2. ^ Eccardt, Thomas M. (2005). Secrets of the Seven Smallest States of Europe: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-7818-1032-6. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  3. ^ a b c "The Russian King of Andorra: Fantasies and Facts". Issuu. 10 July 2013. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  4. ^ p2 (13 January 1919). "Russian Officer's Story. Relatives murdered by Bolshevists". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b https://www.pressreader.com/spain/historia-y-vida/20130802/282024734887631. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24 – via PressReader. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  6. ^ Boris I, Rey De Andorra (1st ed.). Ediciones Destino. 2007. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  7. ^ "The Andorran Pretender," The Times, July 19, 1934.
  8. ^ p4 (6 January 1919). "Russian Interpreter's Cheques". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ p5 (18 January 1919). "Reticent Russian Officer. A Mysterious Woman Friend". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ p5 (20 January 1919). "Mysterious Russian's Cheques. Satisfactory explanations". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ p4 (20 January 1919). "Bolshevists in London. Secret Conference at Memorial Hall". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Office, Great Britain Foreign (1969). Index to the Correspondence of the Foreign Office for the Year. Kraus-Thomson. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  13. ^ Leonardo, Ana Cristina, 1959- (2018). O centro do mundo (1st ed.). Lisboa. ISBN 978-989-722-515-4. OCLC 1039007007. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Baker, Tom (2015-06-11). "10 Regular People Who Declared Themselves Royalty". WhatCulture.com. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  15. ^ Miguel (2015-06-04). "Boris Skossyreff and monarchical Andorra". Medium. Archived from the original on 2015-09-07. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  16. ^ The Listener. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1934. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  17. ^ Augustin, Byron (2009). Andorra. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-3122-0. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  18. ^ "Борис I: правитель Андорры из Вильно". lrt.lt (in Lithuanian). 2018-07-09. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  19. ^ Diletant.media. "Блоги / Diletant.media: Борис I: правитель Андорры из Российской империи". Эхо Москвы (in Russian). Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  20. ^ Izu, Miguel. El Rey de Andorra (in Spanish). Editorial Almuzara. ISBN 978-84-17558-35-2. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  21. ^ p11 (3 March 1934). "No King for Andorra. Offer from Chicago Declined". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Marsenyach, Albert Daina. "Boris I Rei d'Andorra". El Coprincipat d'Andorra ara fa molt de temps. (in European Spanish). Archived from the original on 2020-01-16. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  23. ^ Fontaine, Nicolas (2020-02-07). "Boris 1e, le mystérieux roi d'Andorre venu de Russie". Histoires Royales (in French). Archived from the original on 2020-09-27. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  24. ^ Affinati, Riccardo (2015-11-27). Città fatali II (in Italian). Soldiershop Publishing. ISBN 978-88-99158-97-2.
  25. ^ d'auteurs, collectif (2018-05-17). Jeux Floraux des PyrŽnŽes - Anthologie 2018 (in French). Lulu.com. ISBN 979-10-90416-28-4. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  26. ^ Hoy, Rusia; Pedrosa, Ramón (May 21, 2013). "Borís Skossyreff: el aventurero ruso que se proclamó Rey de Andorra". es.rbth.com (in European Spanish). Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  27. ^ d'auteurs, collectif (2018-05-17). Jeux Floraux des PyrŽnŽes - Anthologie 2018 (in French). Lulu.com. ISBN 979-10-90416-28-4. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  28. ^ Banks, William C. (1997-05-05). Political Handbook of the World 1997. CQ Press. ISBN 978-0-933199-12-5. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  29. ^ d'auteurs, Collectif (2020-05-11). Jeux Floraux des Pyrénées - Anthologie 2020 (in French). BoD - Books on Demand. ISBN 979-10-90416-37-6. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  30. ^ Eccardt, Thomas M. (2005). Secrets of the Seven Smallest States of Europe: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-7818-1032-6. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  31. ^ Augustin, Byron (2009). Andorra. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-3122-0. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  32. ^ Baldacchinoel, Godfrey; Wivel, Anders (2020-03-28). Handbook on the Politics of Small States. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78811-293-2.
  33. ^ Kelly, Christopher; Laycock, Stuart (2015-10-15). All the Countries the Americans Have Ever Invaded: Making Friends and Influencing People?. Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4456-5177-4. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  34. ^ Eccardt, Thomas M. (2005). Secrets of the Seven Smallest States of Europe: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-7818-1032-6. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  35. ^ The Listener. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1934. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  36. ^ Ginart, Belen (2006-12-07). "El impostor que logró ser rey". El País (in Spanish). ISSN 1134-6582. Archived from the original on 2019-08-15. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  37. ^ Tagliabue, John (2008-03-24). "Hard times fall in the valleys of Andorra". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-05-26.
  38. ^ p14 (13 July 1934). "A Pretender in Andorra. 'War' declared on Bishop". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ p3 (21 July 1934). "Boris the First arrested". The New York Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Eccardt, Thomas M. (2005). Secrets of the Seven Smallest States of Europe: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-7818-1032-6. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  41. ^ p12 (21 July 1934). "Andorran Pretender arrested. Ten days' 'reign'". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ Nogueira, Adeilson (26 March 2018). Moedas De Andorra (in Portuguese). Clube de Autores (managed).
  43. ^ p11 (23 July 1934). "Andorran Pretender taken to Madrid. 'A militant Prince'". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ p4 (23 July 1934). "Spain Will Expel 'Boris of Andorra'". The New York Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Boris objected to being taken to Madrid by third class train ticket (24 July 1934). "Boris I arrived in Madrid". The New York Times.
  46. ^ Mundo hispánico (in Spanish). July 1934.
  47. ^ p11 (26 July 1934). "Andorran Pretender in Prison. Disowned by his 'Subjects'". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ "1933: la República que quasi va ser". BonDia Diari digital d'Andorra. (in Catalan). Archived from the original on 2019-05-06. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  49. ^ "The Andorran Pretender". The Times. 7 November 1934.
  50. ^ "'Spain week by week". Bulletin of Spanish Studies. 11 (44): 209–216. 1934. doi:10.1080/14753825012331364384.
  51. ^ barlavento (2008-05-26). "Rei de Andorra viveu em Olhão". Barlavento (in European Portuguese). Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  52. ^ p13 (23 November 1934). "'Prince Boris of Andorra'. Arrest in Portugal". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ Izu, Miguel. El Rey de Andorra (in Spanish). Editorial Almuzara. ISBN 978-84-17558-35-2. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  54. ^ p13 (28 November 1934). "News in Brief". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ "Postal 988". Issuu. 20 May 2010. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  56. ^ Eccardt, Thomas M. (2005). Secrets of the Seven Smallest States of Europe: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-7818-1032-6. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
  57. ^ p13 (18 May 1936). "'Prince of Andorra' under arrest". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ a b "Boris Skossyreff". www.olhaocubista.pt. Archived from the original on 2020-09-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  59. ^ p13 (9 June 1936). "Telegrams in Brief". The Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ L'Intermédiaire des chercheurs et curieux (in French). 2002. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  61. ^ "Boris I". www.andorrasite.com. Archived from the original on 2020-01-24. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
  62. ^ Leonardo, Ana Cristina, 1959- (2018). O centro do mundo (1a. edição ed.). Lisboa. ISBN 978-989-722-515-4. OCLC 1039007007. Archived from the original on 2020-12-20. Retrieved 2020-05-24.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  63. ^ Morell, Antoni (1984). Borís I, Rei D'andorra. La Magrana. ISBN 84-7410-157-3.
  64. ^ Official website of the play[permanent dead link]

Notes

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Files located in the National Archives (Britain)

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  • 1918: Skossyref, Boris de, Baron Services rendered to Allied Embassies in Russia. N9531/9531/38
  • 1919: W38 31867 Regarding the behaviour of Major Hoshimoto in regards to Skossyreff.
  • Skossyreff's Welfare file K562/562/236
  • 1920: 201745/201745/38 A request for assistance by Irene Skossyreff regarding the processing of her reparation from Russia to England
  • 1921 N3890/N4051/1226/38 Skossyreff-Cheshire, FC, Mrs Reparation Expenses of KL 10256/3764/295
  • L 16191/16191/238 (file) Docs on release of son, Vadim Skossyreff, from Russia
  • 1932 Boris Skossyreff Activities: nationality L 4227/4227/ (file)
  • 1933 Boris de Skossyreff Activities abroad K 13929/1329/241
  • 1934 Skossyreff, Baron, Pretender to the Throne of Andorra, Activities C5139/5139/17
  • 1935 Skossyreff, Baron de, alias Boris Count of Orange alias Rollo, Capt: Portuguese enquiry respecting L1821/1821/405 (file)

Bibliography

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